An ethnographic profile of Dudekula Muslims, a little known community in Andhra Pradesh
finds that the community, converting to Islam generations ago, continued to follow old
traditions for a long time earning harsh criticism from both religious communities. In recent
years however, the younger generations have increasingly taken to adopting Islamic rituals,
traditions, customs and manners in the hope of securing a higher social status. -S A A SAHEB
In India Muslims occupy an important place and form the
largest minority group. According to the 1981 Census the
Muslim population in India was 7,55,12,439, i e, 11.35 per
cent of the total population of the country. In Andhra Pradesh
Muslims constitute 8.47 per cent, which is less than the national
average.
Under the National Project ‘People of India’, the author studied
14 Muslim Communities of Andhra Pradesh and one among them
was Dudekula. The field work was conducted during 1987. The
Indian Muslims are economically backward [Mondal 1992]. In
the constitutional status too they come under the backward castes
(BC group) category. The same status is given to Dudekula in
Andhra Pradesh. A proper understanding of the problem of
backward classes requires us to view it from several perspectives
notably those of the social sciences, and from the legal studies
angle, for we are at every step confronted by the divergence
between what exists as social reality and what ought to exist
according to the laws we have created for ourselves [Andre
Beteille 1983]. The present paper deals with problem of inequality
faced by the Dudekula, an oscillating community, between the
Hindu and Islamic religions. The problems faced by them because
of this, in socio-economic and religious fields are discussed here
in brief.
Dudekula are numerically a small community. They are known
by synonyms such as ‘Pinjari’, ‘Bhai’, ‘Panjakuttai’, and ‘Panjari’.
The other synonyms recorded by Thurston (1909) are ‘Ladaf’
and ‘Nurbash’. All these names are recorded at the time of census
taking exercises and are found to be the corrupted forms of ‘naddaf’
(a cotton-dresser) and ‘nur-baf’ (weaver). In Telugu, the state
language of Andhra Pradesh, ‘Dude’ means cotton and ‘ekuta’
means cleaning. Hence they are locally called the Dudekula, the
cotton cleaners and mattress makers. They are mentioned as “a
Mohammadan caste of cotton-cleaners, rope and tape makers”
[Francis loc cit by Thruston: 1909].
Dudekula, in Andhra Pradesh are distributed in the districts
bodering Tamil Nadu such as Gudiatham, Amburu, Thiruttani,
Puttur ad Chittoor. They are found in large numbers in the villages
of Regallu, Domalacheruvu, Kallur, Mangalepeta, Kalikiri,
Rompicherla, Arakonda and Nayanapakala of Andhra Pradesh.
Telugu is their mother tongue and it is used for communication
at home and with outsiders. They also use the Telugu script. The
personal name giving pattern of Dudekula is similar to the Hindus.
That is, they not only follow the Hindu style of adding the name
of the place of their origin, i e, place of residence. But also attach
honourable suffix such as ‘anna’ (brother), ‘akka’ (sister), ‘appa’
(father) and ‘amma’ (mother) to them. With this they sound like
this: Kasi-anna, Kasi-akka, Hussain-appa and Hussain-amma. In
case of women they have dropped the honorific suffix such as
‘bibi’ or ‘bi’ and adopted the Hindu suffix of amma instead This
at first appearance sound that they are Hindus. However they
have been changing the naming pattern and sons are now named
with suffixes saheb and daughters with bibi. Of late, having come
under the influence of the Islamic groups, they either speak Urdu
or Arabic. So a few had told the author that they had felt ashamed
to call themselves Muslims and had also hesitated to establish
social and conjugal contacts with other Muslims. Of late, a few
rich Dudekula are trying to identify with others by shunning
Hindu customs and manners and have began to learn Urdu as
well as Arabic. To some extent they have also learnt to speak
Dakkani, a variety of Urdu which evolved in the Deccan Plateau
of India, through outsiders to the region.
Etymological Origin of the Community
The author recorded a legend, told in the fomr of a local Telugu
poem, by an elderly Dudekulu man, about the origin of the
community. It is as follows:
E Kulumani Nannevaruadigethe E mani Cheppanu Lokulaku,
Palukakulaku, Dustulaku, Durmargalaku, Donnapothulaku,
Antuna Puttende Kulame
Muttantuna Perigende Kulame
Antuna Shivudu, Muttuna Murudu, Entana Eswarudu,
Mugguru Murthula Delepende Ekulame
Entilopala illu kattu koni
Kanti lopala kaduru pettukoni
Narayana ani naram Thesikoni
Panchadri ani thadiki vesukoni
Govinda ani gudipa Deesikoni
Gaba gaba, Daba Daba, Ekenide ekulam
Dudekuni Kulame Nakulam
E Kulamani Nannevaru adigethe E mani Cheppanu Lokulaku,
Palukakulaku, Dustulaku, Durmargulaku, Dunnapothulaku,
Panchadri ani Panche thesikoni
Erabramha ani Shalava Kappukoni
Poojala nadependikulame Nakulam
Vantari gaadu E Kulame Sree Zantana
Kalasinde Kulame Nakulam
Ekulamani Nannevaru adigethe E mani Cheppanu Lokulaku,
Palukakulaku, Dustalaku, Durmargulaku, Donnapothulaku.
The above legend narrates the plight of a person if you ask
me my caste what can I tell you, it is low and people looked
down upon me and treated me inferior to them because of the
nature of my calling and worshipping of the Hindu gods such
as ‘Sree’ (Sree Rama). ‘Erabramha’ (Hindu saint), ‘Shivudu’
(Lord Shiva), ‘Murudu’ (Lord Muruga), and ‘Eswarudu’ (Lord
Eswara)’. This also suggests the faith and praise they have
towards Hindu gods and saints. It also highlights that the three
important Hindu gods of the partheon Brahma, Vishnu and
Eswara are at the centre of their group, gave them the occupation
of cotton cleaning. They claim they are the descendants of those
first people who lead the life of cotton cleaners. Finally they
accept that they are not the descendants of Syed Muslims who
trace their origin to the prophet of Islam. They occupy an intermedia
position – between Muslims and the Hindus. But the Hindu caste
groups such as the reddy, the naidu and the balija who live in
their neighbourhood say that the Dudekula are Muslims because
they worship Allah, go to mosque and fast during the month of
Ramzan.
The Dudekula are said to be Hindu converts to Islam [Francis
as quoted by Thurston: 1909]. This statement is supported by
the narration that the Dudekula are the descendants of those
Hindus who got converted to Islam by the Muslim Sufi saint,
Bava Faqruddin. Prior to becoming a Sufi saint he was the king
of Seistan, in Persia and later became an Islamic religious mendicant
(dervish). He eventually reached Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu
and became a disciple of the celebrated saint, Tabri Alam Pasha.
After his admission into holy orders of Sufism, Faqruddin was
told to travel about, and plant his walking stick made out of the
root of the Pilu tree (Salvadora Persica), wherever, he halted.
Normally the twigs of this plant are used as tooth brush by
mendicants. He was told further that the place where it sprouted
would form his permanent residence. When Faqruddin reached
a hillock near Penukonda, presently in Anantapur district of
Andhra Pradesh, as usual, he planted the walking stick and it
sprouted. Accordingly he decided to make this place his permanent
abode. But this place was close to the important Hindu temple
of Gangamma (village deity), and the idea of a Muhammadan
settling there enraged the Hindus. They asked him to leave the
place. He not only refused to do that, but allowed his disciples,
of whom a number had collected, to slaughter the sacred bull
belonging to the temple and eat it. The king of Penugonda came
to know of this and decided to punish Faqruddin and his disciples
by death. So he collected an army and attacked them. But his
efforts were in vain. Then the king, ordered his men to kill them
by poisoning. Accordingly cakes mixed with poison were prepared,
and sent to Faqruddin and his disciples. The saint, though
he knew that the cakes were poisoned, partook the meal. There
was no ill-effect on them. A few days later, the king was attacked
by chronic disease, and he was given up by his court physicians
as a hopeless case. As a last resort, he was taken to the saint,
Faqruddin, who offered him one of the the poisoned cakes to
eat.After eating that he was completely cured. Falling at the feet
of the saint, the king begged for pardon. Later he also gave away
Penugonda to the saint. But the offer was rejected and in turn
the saint asked that the temple be converted into a mosque. The
king it is said, granted this request. With this it is said, large
number of Hindus embraced Islam. It was these people who
are now considered to be the ancestors of the Dudekula of the present
study. It is because of this that the saint Faqruddin of Penukonda
is regarded as their family saint.
The Dudekula are said to be the progeny of the invading
Musalman soldiers and the local women [Francis as quoted by
Thurston: 1909]. The above statement is also supported by Rahim
(1971) who says that there were Muslim settlements in south
India, before the advent of Islam in India. The Arab traders who
visited India for trade, used to marry the local women, who speak
the native language. Their progeny are the Labbai and Navayat
Muslims, in Tamil Nadu [Saheb 1998]. It may be true in case
of Dudekula Muslim also who has the Telugu language as
their mother tongue. To overcome these lapses or stigma a few
well to do Dudekula men want to marry women specially
from the Dakkani Muslim families, who speak Urdu. Those who
have married try to claim a higher social status by claiming
alliance to the Islamic sectarian groups such as Shaik and Syed
in the locality.
Food and Food Habits
The Dudekula by tradition are non-vegetarians and eat both
vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods. There is a popular saying
among them that a Muslim means he will definitely eat beef,
if not he is not a Muslim (Thurakodi maddakupudithe thintadu,
Kafir aythe thenadu). It clearly means that the Dudekula are
beef eaters. Islamic code of conduct forbids them from eating
pork and carrion. Their staple food is rice. They also consume
all types fo pulses of grams (‘alasandulu’), turdal (‘kandulu’)
and horsegram (‘vuluvalu’). Their cooking medium is groundnut
oil. A few use palm oil which is sold at lower price
by fair price shops run by the government at a cheaper rate.
They also consume local available roots and tubers. Men often
consume alcoholic beverages – both factory and home made
arrack, ‘sarai’.
Social Divisions, Hierarchy and Stratification
The Dudekula community is endogamous.They are further
divided on lineages such as Amburollu, Macharla, Gudiyathamollu,
Nagurollu, Kallurollu, Ratollu, and Palemollu. Persons belong
to a lineage are considered as brothers and sisters (‘dayadulu’)
and marriage alliances among them are not made. For example,
Dudekula with the Ratollu surname cannot marry among themselves.
Hence for marriage alliance they go to Amburollu which
is treated as ‘menarikam’. Thus, the Dudekula follow exogamy
based on surname.This type of alliance that includes the dropping
of parallel cousin marriages, is a Hindu practice, but is followed
by the Dudekulas. They marry cross cousins: father’s sister’s
daughters (FSD) and mother’s brother’s daughters (MBD). As
a result they are looked down upon by other Muslims. To
overcome this, now they are adopting the customs and manners
of the more Islamised groups.
Regards,
largest minority group. According to the 1981 Census the
Muslim population in India was 7,55,12,439, i e, 11.35 per
cent of the total population of the country. In Andhra Pradesh
Muslims constitute 8.47 per cent, which is less than the national
average.
Under the National Project ‘People of India’, the author studied
14 Muslim Communities of Andhra Pradesh and one among them
was Dudekula. The field work was conducted during 1987. The
Indian Muslims are economically backward [Mondal 1992]. In
the constitutional status too they come under the backward castes
(BC group) category. The same status is given to Dudekula in
Andhra Pradesh. A proper understanding of the problem of
backward classes requires us to view it from several perspectives
notably those of the social sciences, and from the legal studies
angle, for we are at every step confronted by the divergence
between what exists as social reality and what ought to exist
according to the laws we have created for ourselves [Andre
Beteille 1983]. The present paper deals with problem of inequality
faced by the Dudekula, an oscillating community, between the
Hindu and Islamic religions. The problems faced by them because
of this, in socio-economic and religious fields are discussed here
in brief.
Dudekula are numerically a small community. They are known
by synonyms such as ‘Pinjari’, ‘Bhai’, ‘Panjakuttai’, and ‘Panjari’.
The other synonyms recorded by Thurston (1909) are ‘Ladaf’
and ‘Nurbash’. All these names are recorded at the time of census
taking exercises and are found to be the corrupted forms of ‘naddaf’
(a cotton-dresser) and ‘nur-baf’ (weaver). In Telugu, the state
language of Andhra Pradesh, ‘Dude’ means cotton and ‘ekuta’
means cleaning. Hence they are locally called the Dudekula, the
cotton cleaners and mattress makers. They are mentioned as “a
Mohammadan caste of cotton-cleaners, rope and tape makers”
[Francis loc cit by Thruston: 1909].
Dudekula, in Andhra Pradesh are distributed in the districts
bodering Tamil Nadu such as Gudiatham, Amburu, Thiruttani,
Puttur ad Chittoor. They are found in large numbers in the villages
of Regallu, Domalacheruvu, Kallur, Mangalepeta, Kalikiri,
Rompicherla, Arakonda and Nayanapakala of Andhra Pradesh.
Telugu is their mother tongue and it is used for communication
at home and with outsiders. They also use the Telugu script. The
personal name giving pattern of Dudekula is similar to the Hindus.
That is, they not only follow the Hindu style of adding the name
of the place of their origin, i e, place of residence. But also attach
honourable suffix such as ‘anna’ (brother), ‘akka’ (sister), ‘appa’
(father) and ‘amma’ (mother) to them. With this they sound like
this: Kasi-anna, Kasi-akka, Hussain-appa and Hussain-amma. In
case of women they have dropped the honorific suffix such as
‘bibi’ or ‘bi’ and adopted the Hindu suffix of amma instead This
at first appearance sound that they are Hindus. However they
have been changing the naming pattern and sons are now named
with suffixes saheb and daughters with bibi. Of late, having come
under the influence of the Islamic groups, they either speak Urdu
or Arabic. So a few had told the author that they had felt ashamed
to call themselves Muslims and had also hesitated to establish
social and conjugal contacts with other Muslims. Of late, a few
rich Dudekula are trying to identify with others by shunning
Hindu customs and manners and have began to learn Urdu as
well as Arabic. To some extent they have also learnt to speak
Dakkani, a variety of Urdu which evolved in the Deccan Plateau
of India, through outsiders to the region.
Etymological Origin of the Community
The author recorded a legend, told in the fomr of a local Telugu
poem, by an elderly Dudekulu man, about the origin of the
community. It is as follows:
E Kulumani Nannevaruadigethe E mani Cheppanu Lokulaku,
Palukakulaku, Dustulaku, Durmargalaku, Donnapothulaku,
Antuna Puttende Kulame
Muttantuna Perigende Kulame
Antuna Shivudu, Muttuna Murudu, Entana Eswarudu,
Mugguru Murthula Delepende Ekulame
Entilopala illu kattu koni
Kanti lopala kaduru pettukoni
Narayana ani naram Thesikoni
Panchadri ani thadiki vesukoni
Govinda ani gudipa Deesikoni
Gaba gaba, Daba Daba, Ekenide ekulam
Dudekuni Kulame Nakulam
E Kulamani Nannevaru adigethe E mani Cheppanu Lokulaku,
Palukakulaku, Dustulaku, Durmargulaku, Dunnapothulaku,
Panchadri ani Panche thesikoni
Erabramha ani Shalava Kappukoni
Poojala nadependikulame Nakulam
Vantari gaadu E Kulame Sree Zantana
Kalasinde Kulame Nakulam
Ekulamani Nannevaru adigethe E mani Cheppanu Lokulaku,
Palukakulaku, Dustalaku, Durmargulaku, Donnapothulaku.
The above legend narrates the plight of a person if you ask
me my caste what can I tell you, it is low and people looked
down upon me and treated me inferior to them because of the
nature of my calling and worshipping of the Hindu gods such
as ‘Sree’ (Sree Rama). ‘Erabramha’ (Hindu saint), ‘Shivudu’
(Lord Shiva), ‘Murudu’ (Lord Muruga), and ‘Eswarudu’ (Lord
Eswara)’. This also suggests the faith and praise they have
towards Hindu gods and saints. It also highlights that the three
important Hindu gods of the partheon Brahma, Vishnu and
Eswara are at the centre of their group, gave them the occupation
of cotton cleaning. They claim they are the descendants of those
first people who lead the life of cotton cleaners. Finally they
accept that they are not the descendants of Syed Muslims who
trace their origin to the prophet of Islam. They occupy an intermedia
position – between Muslims and the Hindus. But the Hindu caste
groups such as the reddy, the naidu and the balija who live in
their neighbourhood say that the Dudekula are Muslims because
they worship Allah, go to mosque and fast during the month of
Ramzan.
The Dudekula are said to be Hindu converts to Islam [Francis
as quoted by Thurston: 1909]. This statement is supported by
the narration that the Dudekula are the descendants of those
Hindus who got converted to Islam by the Muslim Sufi saint,
Bava Faqruddin. Prior to becoming a Sufi saint he was the king
of Seistan, in Persia and later became an Islamic religious mendicant
(dervish). He eventually reached Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu
and became a disciple of the celebrated saint, Tabri Alam Pasha.
After his admission into holy orders of Sufism, Faqruddin was
told to travel about, and plant his walking stick made out of the
root of the Pilu tree (Salvadora Persica), wherever, he halted.
Normally the twigs of this plant are used as tooth brush by
mendicants. He was told further that the place where it sprouted
would form his permanent residence. When Faqruddin reached
a hillock near Penukonda, presently in Anantapur district of
Andhra Pradesh, as usual, he planted the walking stick and it
sprouted. Accordingly he decided to make this place his permanent
abode. But this place was close to the important Hindu temple
of Gangamma (village deity), and the idea of a Muhammadan
settling there enraged the Hindus. They asked him to leave the
place. He not only refused to do that, but allowed his disciples,
of whom a number had collected, to slaughter the sacred bull
belonging to the temple and eat it. The king of Penugonda came
to know of this and decided to punish Faqruddin and his disciples
by death. So he collected an army and attacked them. But his
efforts were in vain. Then the king, ordered his men to kill them
by poisoning. Accordingly cakes mixed with poison were prepared,
and sent to Faqruddin and his disciples. The saint, though
he knew that the cakes were poisoned, partook the meal. There
was no ill-effect on them. A few days later, the king was attacked
by chronic disease, and he was given up by his court physicians
as a hopeless case. As a last resort, he was taken to the saint,
Faqruddin, who offered him one of the the poisoned cakes to
eat.After eating that he was completely cured. Falling at the feet
of the saint, the king begged for pardon. Later he also gave away
Penugonda to the saint. But the offer was rejected and in turn
the saint asked that the temple be converted into a mosque. The
king it is said, granted this request. With this it is said, large
number of Hindus embraced Islam. It was these people who
are now considered to be the ancestors of the Dudekula of the present
study. It is because of this that the saint Faqruddin of Penukonda
is regarded as their family saint.
The Dudekula are said to be the progeny of the invading
Musalman soldiers and the local women [Francis as quoted by
Thurston: 1909]. The above statement is also supported by Rahim
(1971) who says that there were Muslim settlements in south
India, before the advent of Islam in India. The Arab traders who
visited India for trade, used to marry the local women, who speak
the native language. Their progeny are the Labbai and Navayat
Muslims, in Tamil Nadu [Saheb 1998]. It may be true in case
of Dudekula Muslim also who has the Telugu language as
their mother tongue. To overcome these lapses or stigma a few
well to do Dudekula men want to marry women specially
from the Dakkani Muslim families, who speak Urdu. Those who
have married try to claim a higher social status by claiming
alliance to the Islamic sectarian groups such as Shaik and Syed
in the locality.
Food and Food Habits
The Dudekula by tradition are non-vegetarians and eat both
vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods. There is a popular saying
among them that a Muslim means he will definitely eat beef,
if not he is not a Muslim (Thurakodi maddakupudithe thintadu,
Kafir aythe thenadu). It clearly means that the Dudekula are
beef eaters. Islamic code of conduct forbids them from eating
pork and carrion. Their staple food is rice. They also consume
all types fo pulses of grams (‘alasandulu’), turdal (‘kandulu’)
and horsegram (‘vuluvalu’). Their cooking medium is groundnut
oil. A few use palm oil which is sold at lower price
by fair price shops run by the government at a cheaper rate.
They also consume local available roots and tubers. Men often
consume alcoholic beverages – both factory and home made
arrack, ‘sarai’.
Social Divisions, Hierarchy and Stratification
The Dudekula community is endogamous.They are further
divided on lineages such as Amburollu, Macharla, Gudiyathamollu,
Nagurollu, Kallurollu, Ratollu, and Palemollu. Persons belong
to a lineage are considered as brothers and sisters (‘dayadulu’)
and marriage alliances among them are not made. For example,
Dudekula with the Ratollu surname cannot marry among themselves.
Hence for marriage alliance they go to Amburollu which
is treated as ‘menarikam’. Thus, the Dudekula follow exogamy
based on surname.This type of alliance that includes the dropping
of parallel cousin marriages, is a Hindu practice, but is followed
by the Dudekulas. They marry cross cousins: father’s sister’s
daughters (FSD) and mother’s brother’s daughters (MBD). As
a result they are looked down upon by other Muslims. To
overcome this, now they are adopting the customs and manners
of the more Islamised groups.
Regards,
Dudekula Community.
